APA ITU SISTEM HYBRID
Definisi Teknologi Hybrid:
Teknologi hybrid ini didefinisikan sebagai penggunaan kenderaan yang menggunakan dua atau lebih penggunaan gabungan bahan api dan kuasa elektrik untuk menggerakkan motor kenderaan,sekaligus menjimatkan minyak.
Bagaimana teknologi hybrid berfungsi:
"Jika ditinjau situasi semasa, kereta kuasa elektrik terbukti tidak mencemarkan alam sekitar,sebaliknya hanya berupaya bergerak sejauh 80 hingga 161 km sebelum perlu dicaj semula selain kereta itu bergerak perlahan dan kesukaran mencari tempat untuk mencaj semula."
Faktor-faktor utama dalam menggerakkan sebuah kereta:
Kebanyakan kereta memerlukan enjin bersaiz besar untuk menghasilkan kuasa bagi menggerakkan kereta dengan pantas tetapi penggunaan enjin kecil boleh ditingkatkan dengan menggunakan komponen lebih ringan termasuk mengurangkan jumlah silinder dan memaksimumkan penggunaan enjin.
Kesimpulannya ,penggunaan sistem hybrid pada kenderaan sememangnya memberikan 1001 manfaat buat kita semua.Kelebihannya dalam penjimatan petrol amatlah menguntungkan dan yang penting ia amat mesra dengan alam sekitar.Mungkin skarang,kebanyakan sistem ini hanya didapati pada kereta sahaja.mungkin juga satu hari nanti sistem ini akan diguna pakai pada motosikal.Sesungguhnya sebagai masyarakat yang prihatin pada alam sekitar semestinya menyokong teknologi sebegini dan bukanlah teknologi yang memudaratkan kita semua.
Teknologi hybrid ini didefinisikan sebagai penggunaan kenderaan yang menggunakan dua atau lebih penggunaan gabungan bahan api dan kuasa elektrik untuk menggerakkan motor kenderaan,sekaligus menjimatkan minyak.
Bagaimana teknologi hybrid berfungsi:
- Struktur enjin hybrid yang menggabungkan kuasa elektrik dan bahan api bertindak dalam pelbagai cara iaitu hybrid dalam bentuk selari yang mana bahan api disalurkan ke enjin tetapi pada masa yang sama dilengkapi bateri yang membekalkan kuasa kepada motor elektroniknya.
- Gabungan kedua-dua enjin dan motor elektrik itu berfungsi menggerakkan transmisi enjin pada satu-satu masa,sekaligus bertindak balas menghasilkan kuasa kepada kenderaan itu.
- Kaedah kedua ialah enjin bahan api tidak disalurkan terus untuk menggerakkan transmisi enjin tetapi penjana yang bertindak mengeluarkan caj elektrik kepada bateri atau kuasa motorelektrik menerusi sumber daripada bahan api itu. Antara komponen dalam kenderaan hybrid ialah enjin bahan api lebih kecil dan menggunakan teknologi termaju bagi mengurangkan kadar pelepasan asap,sekaligus tidak mencemarkan alam sekitar.
- Komponen lain ialah motor elektrik sebagai penjana kuasa,bateri voltan bersaiz kompak yang menyimpan tenaga,manakala transmisi enjin sama dengan kereta konvensional lain.Berbanding enjin kereta konvensional.kadar pelepasan asap iaitu gas karbon monoksida kereta hybrid lebih 80% rendah.
"Jika ditinjau situasi semasa, kereta kuasa elektrik terbukti tidak mencemarkan alam sekitar,sebaliknya hanya berupaya bergerak sejauh 80 hingga 161 km sebelum perlu dicaj semula selain kereta itu bergerak perlahan dan kesukaran mencari tempat untuk mencaj semula."
Faktor-faktor utama dalam menggerakkan sebuah kereta:
Kebanyakan kereta memerlukan enjin bersaiz besar untuk menghasilkan kuasa bagi menggerakkan kereta dengan pantas tetapi penggunaan enjin kecil boleh ditingkatkan dengan menggunakan komponen lebih ringan termasuk mengurangkan jumlah silinder dan memaksimumkan penggunaan enjin.
- Keberkesanan enjin hybrid bukan saja meningkatkan penjimatan minyak dan berfungsi menyimpan tenaga yang disimpan di dalam bateri yang enjin akan dihentikan sementara apabila kenderaan berhenti dilampu isyarat tetapi dibantu kuasa bateri biasa. Kereta hybrid tidak memerlukan kos penjagaan dan penyelenggaraan yang tinggi kerana motor dan bateri kereta itu tidak memerlukan penyelenggaraan dan boleh digunakan sepanjang hayat.
- Kini teknologi hybrid muncul bagi merancakkan lagi usaha ke arah menjadikan bumi lebih hijau. Antara gergasi automotif yang telah memperkenalkan teknologi hybrid mereka ialah Toyota (Hybrid Synergy Drive) melalui model Toyota Prius, Honda (Integrated Motor Assisstant) melalui model Honda Civic Hybrid, Ford (Fusion Hybrid) melalui model Ford Fusion Hybrid dan sebagainya dan tidak ketinggalan syarikat automotif tempatan, Proton (Lotus Range Extender) melalui model kereta konsep mereka, Proton EMAS.
- Malaysia juga antara negara di rantau ini yang komited dalam polisi Teknologi Hijau malah, dalam Dasar Automotif Negara (DAN) yang dibentangkan tahun lalu, ia termaktub bersama. Sejak tahun 2003, kerajaan memperkenalkan pelbagai insentif fiskal bagi syarikat-syarikat yang menjana elektrik daripada sumber tenaga boleh diperbaharui.
- Syarikat-syarikat yang mengamalkan aktiviti-aktiviti penjimatan tenaga layak diberi Pengecualian Cukai Pelaburan dan Status Perintis.
- Walaubagaimanapun buat masa ini teknologi hybrid masih lagi mahal. Harga sebuah Toyota Prius di Malaysia ialah RM 175 000, Honda Civic Hybrid RM 130 000 manakala Proton EMAS dijangka akan berada di jalan raya seawalnya 2012. Ketika mana dunia mengalami penyusutan bekalan petroleum, pengenalan dan penambahbaikan teknologi hybrid amatlah dialu-alukan.
- Jika sekarang sebuah kereta bersesaran 1600 cc yang menempuh kesesakan jalan raya selama 45 minit untuk ke tempat kerja berjarak 12 km (penghuni Pulau Pinang Pulau Mutiara lebih memahami) memerlukan 7.0 L petrol untuk perjalanan sejauh 100 km, maka dengan teknologi hybrid jumlahnya boleh dikurangkan kepada 3-4 L petrol sahaja. Jadi bayangkan penjimatan petrol dan wang yang ditawarkan selain pengurangan asap dan bahan pencemar lain ke atmosfera bumi.
Kesimpulannya ,penggunaan sistem hybrid pada kenderaan sememangnya memberikan 1001 manfaat buat kita semua.Kelebihannya dalam penjimatan petrol amatlah menguntungkan dan yang penting ia amat mesra dengan alam sekitar.Mungkin skarang,kebanyakan sistem ini hanya didapati pada kereta sahaja.mungkin juga satu hari nanti sistem ini akan diguna pakai pada motosikal.Sesungguhnya sebagai masyarakat yang prihatin pada alam sekitar semestinya menyokong teknologi sebegini dan bukanlah teknologi yang memudaratkan kita semua.
sumber: http://hairilhazlan.com/2010/11/10/kenali-teknologi-hybrid/
WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND?
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) (French : Fonds monétaire international) is an international organization that was initiated in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and formally created in 1945 by 29
member countries. The IMF's stated goal was to assist in the reconstruction of
the world's international payment system post–World War II.
Countries contribute money to a pool through a quota system from which
countries with payment imbalances can borrow funds temporarily. Through this activity and
others such as surveillance of its members' economies and the demand for
self-correcting policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member
countries.
The
IMF describes itself as “an organization of 188 countries, working to foster
global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate
international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth,
and reduce poverty around the world.” The
organization's stated objectives are to promote international economic
co-operation, international trade, employment, and
exchange rate stability, including by making financial resources available to
member countries to meet balance of payments needs. Its headquarters are in Washington,
D.C., United States.
HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
The International
Monetary Fund was originally laid out as a part of the Bretton Woods system exchange agreement in 1944. During the earlier Great
Depression, countries sharply raised barriers to foreign trade in an
attempt to improve their failing economies. This led to the devaluation of
national currencies and a decline in world trade.
This
breakdown in international monetary co-operation created a need for oversight.
The representatives of 45 governments met at the Bretton Woods Conference in the Mount Washington Hotel in the
area of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire in the United States, to discuss framework
for post-World War II international
economic co-operation. The participating countries were concerned with the
rebuilding of Europe and the global economic system after the war.
There
were two views on the role the IMF should assume as a global economic
institution. British economist John Maynard Keynes imagined that the IMF
would be a cooperative fund upon which member states could draw to maintain
economic activity and employment through periodic crises. This view suggested
an IMF that helped governments and to act as the US government had during the New Dealin response to
World War II. American delegate Harry Dexter White foresaw an IMF that functioned more
like a bank, making sure that borrowing states could repay their debts on time. Most of White's plan was incorporated
into the final acts adopted at Bretton Woods.
The
International Monetary Fund formally came into existence on 27 December 1945,
when the first 29 countries ratified its Articles of Agreement. By the end of 1946 the Fund had grown
to 39 members. On 1 March 1947,
the IMF began its financial operations, and
on 8 May France became the first country to borrow from it.
The
IMF was one of the key organizations of the international economic system; its
design allowed the system to balance the rebuilding of international capitalism
with the maximization of national economic sovereignty and human welfare, also
known as embedded liberalism. The IMF's influence in the global
economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The increase
reflected in particular the attainment of political independence by many
African countries and more recently the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union because most countries in the Soviet
sphere of influence did not join the IMF.
The
Bretton Woods system prevailed until 1971, when the US government suspended the
convertibility of the US$ (and dollar reserves held by other governments) into
gold. This is known as the Nixon Shock. As of January 2012, the largest
borrowers from the fund in order are Greece, Portugal, Ireland, Romania and Ukraine.
FUNCTION OF INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
The IMF works to
foster global growth and economic stability. It provides policy
advice and financing to members in economic difficulties and also works with developing nations to help them achieve macroeconomic
stability and reduce
poverty. The rationale
for this is that private international capital markets function imperfectly and
many countries have limited access to financial markets. Such market
imperfections, together with balance of payments financing, provide the
justification for official financing, without which many countries could only
correct large external payment imbalances through measures with adverse effects
on both national and international economic prosperity. The IMF can provide
other sources of financing to countries in need that would not be available in
the absence of an economic stabilization program supported by the Fund.
Upon
initial IMF formation, its two primary functions were: to oversee the fixed exchange rate arrangements between countries, thus helping national governments
manage their exchange rates and allowing these governments to
priorities economic growth, and
to provide short-term capital to aid balance-of-payments. This assistance was meant to prevent
the spread of international economic
crises. The Fund was also intended to help mend the pieces of the
international economy post the Great Depression and World War II.
The
IMF's role was fundamentally altered after the floating exchange rates post 1971. It shifted to examining the
economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a
shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy. The IMF also
researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery. The new challenge is to promote and
implement policy that reduces the frequency of crises among the emerging market
countries, especially the middle-income countries that are open to massive
capital outflows. Rather than
maintaining a position of oversight of only exchange rates, their function
became one of “surveillance” of the overall macroeconomic performance of its
member countries. Their role became a lot more active because the IMF now
manages economic policy instead of just exchange rates.
In
addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy
of conditionality, which was established in the 1950s. Low-income countries can borrow on concessional terms, which means there is a
period of time with no interest rates, through the Extended Credit Facility
(ECF), the Standby Credit Facility (SCF) and the Rapid Credit Facility (RCF).
Non concessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), the Flexible Credit Line (FCL),
the Precautionary and Liquidity Line (PLL), and the Extended Fund Facility. The
IMF provides emergency assistance via the newly introduced Rapid Financing
Instrument (RFI) to all its members facing urgent balance of payments needs.
